what colony state was the first to legalize slavery

Chattel slavery developed in Massachusetts in the first decades of colonial settlement, and it thrived well into the 18th century. Various forms of slavery in New England predated the establishment of the Plymouth Colony in 1620 and the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630, but in one case established, colonists in both jurisdictions captured, purchased, and traded enslaved people—both African and indigenous—on a calibration not previously seen in the region.^[1] Although slavery in the Us is typically associated with the Caribbean and the Antebellum American South, enslaved people were prevalent throughout New England'south colonial history, and the practice was deeply embedded in the economic and social fabric of the region.^[2] Historians estimate that between 1755 and 1764, the Massachusetts slave population was approximately two.2 percent of the total population; the slave population was generally concentrated in the industrial and coastal towns.^[3]

The do of slavery in Massachusetts was concluded gradually through case police force. As an institution, it died out in the tardily 18th century through judicial actions litigated on behalf of slaves seeking manumission. Unlike some other jurisdictions, enslaved people in Massachusetts occupied a dual legal status of being both property and persons earlier the law, which entitled them to file legal suits in courtroom. Following England'southward pb, lawyer Benjamin Kent represented slaves in court against their masters equally early as 1752. He won the offset case to liberate a slave in the American British colonies in 1766.^{[iv] [5] [vi] [seven] [8]} The mail-revolutionary court cases, starting in 1781, heard arguments contending that slavery was a violation of Christian principles and also a violation of the constitution of the Commonwealth. During the years 1781 to 1783, in three related cases known today as "the Quock Walker instance," the Supreme Judicial Court applied the principle of judicial review to finer cancel slavery by declaring it incompatible with the newly adopted state Constitution in 1783.^[nine] This did not accept the effect of immediately freeing all slaves, however. Rather, it signaled to slaveowners that their correct to ain slaves would no longer be legally protected, and without that surety, it was no longer profitable to keep slaves in the first place. Those who owned the slaves so generally chose to replace the enslavement with another organization, either indentured servitude for a stock-still term or conventional, paid employment.

Every bit a upshot of this, Massachusetts is the only state to have goose egg slaves enumerated on the 1790 federal demography. (By 1790, Vermont had also officially concluded slavery, simply a pocket-sized number of slaves are recorded on the Demography result. Historians accept argued whether this was a misunderstanding or something more than.)

A large threat to sometime slaves and freemen living in Massachusetts, notwithstanding, was that posed past slave catchers, whose profession was to look for runaway slaves who had successfully fled from the South and sheltered in the North. Nether American law at the fourth dimension, these individuals were bailiwick to detention and return to slavery in any jurisdiction that had not yet concluded slavery. Many abuses were also committed in which fifty-fifty blacks who were freeborn in the Northward could be falsely defendant of being runaway slaves and spirited away to a life of slavery, as in the infamous example of Solomon Northup, who was freeborn in New York and kidnapped into slavery in Louisiana.

This ongoing doubtfulness impelled the abolitionism move in the N because it meant that even blacks living in complimentary states could never truly exist free until slavery was definitively ended all across the United States. Massachusetts became a leading centre for abolition in early 19th-century America, with individual activists such equally William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass equally well as organizations similar the Boston Vigilance Committee dedicated to advancing the cause.

The political tensions caused by the collision between abolitionism and pro-slavery forces in the United States led directly to the American Civil War in 1861. After the state of war's end in 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed by Congress and ratified past Massachusetts, which legally abolished slavery in the United states of america and ended the threat of enslavement or re-enslavement once and for all. This was the terminal appointment when slavery was formally outlawed in Massachusetts, although information technology had been a moribund institution for decades prior to that time.

After the cease of legal slavery, however, racial segregation continued in Massachusetts every bit a de jure legal requirement in various contexts until the mid-20th century.

History [edit]

Enslavement of ethnic peoples [edit]

The European enslavement of ethnic peoples in New England began with English sailors travelling though the region in the 16th and early on 17th centuries, decades before the institution of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.^{[ten] [11]} In 1605, James Rosier described in particular how he and his shipmates captured 5 Wabanaki men in what is today Maine: "it was as much as five or sixe of us could doe to get them into the light horseman. For they were strong so naked every bit our best concord was by their long haire on their heads."^[12] The English coiffure took the captives to London, where they apparently hoped to instruct them in English and extract knowledge of Wabanaki government that might requite them an advantage against their European competitors in the race to institute colonies in North America. Nine years later on, in 1614, Englishman Thomas Hunt captured twenty-four Native Americans during a voyage to New England with John Smith. Plymouth Governor William Bradford later recalled that Hunt's goal was "to sell them for slaves in Spaine."^[13] 1 of Hunt'south captives, a human named Tisquantum, defied this goal and somewhen found himself in England, where he was able to learn English, render to North America, and famously help the Plymouth colonists in 1621.^[14]

Following the establishment of Plymouth Colony in 1620 and the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630, the colonists quickly incorporated the exercise of enslaving ethnic people into the economic, social, and political cloth of New England. In the first decades of English colonization, the main mode of enslavement was the taking captives during state of war.^[xv] This practice became peculiarly prevalent during the Pequot War from 1636 to 1638. In the early days of the fighting, colonists brought Pequot captives from various small conflicts to the Massachusetts Full general Court, where they declared them officially enslaved. In an early example, the Court ordered in October of 1636 that a Pequot person named Chausop "bee kept a slave for life to worke" within the colony.^[16] Equally the fighting escalated and the number of captives increased, notwithstanding, the English began trading in enslaved Pequots on a much greater scale. They ceased to rely on the General Court and adopted a more than advertizement hoc approach, selling captives into slavery without a legal declaration. Prior to 1641, no statutes guided this emerging merchandise in indigenous slaves. Instead, as historian Margaret Newell has argued, the colonists acted in cocky-interest and justified their do after the fact, past referring to existing English notions of a just war against non-Christians (a theory later codified in the Torso of Liberties).^[17] These justifications were less important than they may seem in retrospect, still; well-nigh historians agree that New England colonists in the 17th century, like English people across the Atlantic earth, generally accepted slavery as a fact of life and gave piffling thought to its morality.^[18]

The enslavement of the Pequots reached its apex in May of 1637, when the English and their Mohegan and Narragansett allies systematically killed and enslaved hundreds of Pequot men, women, and children near the Mystic River.^[xix] The surviving captives, mostly women and children, were divided amongst the victors and spread throughout region. English soldiers took many captives straight, having been promised slaves as a reward for fighting. This resulted in a scramble to claim the most promising captives. Israel Stoughton hinted at the grotesque procedure in a alphabetic character to John Winthrop, the Governor of Massachusetts, in 1637: "ther is ane [Pequot]... that is the fairest and largest that I saw amongst them... it is my desire to take her for a servant.... Liftenant Davenport also desireth one, to witt a alpine one that hath 3 strokes upon her stummach."^[20] Captives non taken by individual soldiers were brought to Boston, where colonial leaders used them equally field laborers and household servants, or sold them to English colonies in the Caribbean.^{[21] [22]}

The enslavement of indigenous people in Massachusetts slowed in the decades afterward the Pequot War, but it rose to new heights during the violence surrounding Rex Philip'south War in the mid-1670s. As English language colonists mobilized militia forces against an ethnic coalition of Narragansett, Wampanoag, and Nipmuc communities, they returned to the now familiar tactic of capture and enslavement. According to historian Margaret Newell, the want for captives formed a "central preoccupation" for the English, frequently leading to a further escalation of the disharmonize.^[23] On the indigenous side, the fear of enslavement and sale to sugar plantations in the Caribbean dissuaded participants from give up and encouraged the weakened nations to continue fighting. Some immature men told an interpreter virtually the end of the war in 1676 that they would be inclined to make peace, merely they were confident they would be enslaved if they did: "why shall wee have peace to bee made slaves, & either be kild or sent away to ocean to Barbadoes... Permit united states live as long as wee tin & dice like men, & non alive to bee enslaved"^[24] Their fears proved well-founded. A few months later, in the fall of 1676, a transport named the Seaflower left Boston with 180 "heathen... men, women and children" who had been "sentenced & [condemned] to Perpetuall Servitude & slavery."^[25] As in the aftermath of the Pequot State of war, hundreds of captives—both combatants and not-combatants—were taken as servants by soldiers, sold to Massachusetts households, or shipped away to pay the colonies' war debt.^[26]

The rate of indigenous slavery declined in Massachusetts equally the violence of King Philip's War faded and the 18th century began, but the reliance on coerced labor did not end. While fewer Native Americans were formally enslaved via capture, colonial courts began sentencing ethnic residents in the colony to terms of involuntary servitude for alleged thefts, a failure to pay debts, or committing acts of violence.^[27] In neighbouring Rhode Island, courts often seized ethnic children from mothers, who they deemed "hell-raising", and offered them as indentured servants to colonists.^[28] While these diverse indenture contracts were definite in theory, abuses were common, terms were long, and involuntary servants with terms over two years could be sold and exchanged around the region.^[29]

Importation of enslaved Africans [edit]

While English colonists in Massachusetts were establishing a consistent trade in indigenous slaves in the 17th century, they also began purchasing enslaved Africans. These processes were deeply intertwined: in 1638, the slave transport Desire carried indigenous captives to the Caribbean for sale into slavery and returned with the starting time documented shipment of enslaved Africans in New England.^[30] This reciprocal trade continued throughout the 17th century, as merchants and colonial governments exported enslaved Native Americans and traded them for more desirable African laborers. Large slaving ships rarely sailed directly from Africa to Massachusetts, equally they occasionally did to Charleston. Instead, merchant ships travelling between the port towns of Salem and Boston frequently returned with enslaved Africans.^{[31] [32]} This continuous flow of enslaved laborers benefitted colonists by simultaneously removing indigenous populations and meeting expanding labor needs.

In addition to bringing enslaved Africans to New England, residents of Massachusetts and Plymouth also participated in the broader Atlantic slave trade. At least nineteen voyages in the 17th century departed from New England, purchased or captured slaves in Africa, and carried them to the Caribbean for sale.^[33] While these slave traders normally sold the majority of their human cargo in the Caribbean, many brought modest numbers dorsum to New England. One Rhode Island merchant in 1717 reminded his brother of this profitable trade, writing: "if you cannot sell all your slaves [in the West Indies] ... bring some of them abode; I believe they will sell well."^[34]

Given the sparse records, lack of a regulatory regime and full general indifference to the presence of slavery, it is impossible to know exactly how many enslaved Africans were brought to Massachusetts throughout the colonial flow.^[35] Gregory O'Malley has estimated that around ix,813 Africans were brought directly to New England between 1638 and 1770, in add-on to 3,870 who arrived through the Caribbean, but this is a rough estimate.^[36] Regardless of the exact number, enslaved Africans certainly constituted a significant labor forcefulness and a notable portion of the community throughout the colonial period of Massachusetts history.

Law 1641–1703 [edit]

In 1641, Massachusetts passed its Body of Liberties, which gave legal sanction to certain kinds of slavery.^[37]

At that place shall never be any bond slaverie, villinage or captivitie amidst united states of america unless it exist lawfull captives taken in merely warres, and such strangers equally willingly selle themselves or are sold to us. And these shall have all the liberties and Christian usages which the law of God established in Israel concerning such persons doeth morally crave. This exempts none from servitude who shall be judged thereto by Authoritie.^[38]

Wiecek notes that the reference to "strangers" is derived from Leviticus 25: 39–55 and explains that they could exist ruled and sold as slaves.^{[37] [39]} For the Puritans and citizens of the colony, "strangers" would eventually hateful Native Americans and Africans.^[37] Even though the Body of Liberties excluded many forms of slavery, it did recognize four legitimate bases of slavery.^[37] Slaves could legally be obtained if they were captives resulting from state of war, sold themselves into slavery, were purchased every bit slaves from elsewhere, or were sentenced to slavery through the governing authority.^[40] This made Massachusetts the first colony to authorize slavery through legislation.^[40] In 1670, Massachusetts made it legal for the children of slaves to be sold into bondage.^[41] By 1680, the colony had laws restricting the movements of blacks.^[41] A 1703 law required owners to post a bond for all slaves to protect towns in the example that a slave became indigent should the master refuse to keep caring for him or her.^[42]

18th century abolitionism [edit]

Past the mid-18th century, the enslavement of Africans had go a common practice in Massachusetts.^[43] A 1754 census listed virtually 4500 slaves in the colony.^[44] All the same, Abolitionist sentiment was growing, especially when the philosophical underpinnings of independence and democracy became usually discussed in the colony. While Massachusetts did derive wealth from the Triangle Trade, its merchants and mixed economy were never every bit dependent on slave labor as the Southern colonies' were. Every bit a component of the British Empire with a split up jurisdiction, the Massachusetts courts noted, merely were not jump past, the conclusion in England in 1772 of the case Somerset v Stewart, which institute that in that location was no basis for slavery on English language soil, as Parliament had not passed an human activity specifically authorizing information technology. (Maritime trade in slaves, which was quite lucrative, would go on in the British Empire until the passage of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 prohibited the slave trade altogether within its territory.)

Freedom suits [edit]

Between 1764 and 1774, seventeen slaves appeared in Massachusetts courts to sue their owners for freedom.^[45] In 1766, John Adams' colleague Benjamin Kent won the get-go trial in the U.s.a. (and Massachusetts) to gratuitous a slave (Slew vs. Whipple). ^{[46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51]} There were three other trials that are noteworthy, two civil and one criminal. All 3 took place during the American Revolutionary State of war, when thoughts nigh the equality of all people were frequently voiced, and peculiarly after the new Massachusetts constitution was passed in 1780. The civil cases were Jennison v. Caldwell (for "deprivation of the benefit of his servant, Walker"), apparently heard and decided first, and Quock Walker v. Jennison (for assault and battery),^[52] both heard by the Worcester County Court of Mutual Pleas on June 12, 1781.

Jennison v. Caldwell

A human named Jennison argued that one Caldwell had enticed away his employee Walker. The court found in his favor and awarded Jennison 25 pounds bounty.

Chief Justice William Cushing

Quock Walker 5. Jennison

This 1781 case involved a slave named Quock Walker in Worcester County Court of Mutual Pleas. Chief Justice William Cushing instructed the jury:

As to the doctrine of slavery and the right of Christians to hold Africans in perpetual servitude, and sell and treat them equally we practise our horses and cattle, that (information technology is true) has been heretofore countenanced by the Province Laws formerly, just nowhere is it expressly enacted or established. Information technology has been a usage – a usage which took its origin from the exercise of some of the European nations, and the regulations of British government respecting the then Colonies, for the benefit of trade and wealth. But whatever sentiments have formerly prevailed in this particular or slid in upon us by the example of others, a unlike idea has taken place with the people of America, more favorable to the natural rights of mankind, and to that natural, innate desire of Liberty, with which Sky (without regard to color, complexion, or shape of noses-features) has inspired all the human race. And upon this basis our Constitution of Government, by which the people of this Commonwealth have solemnly bound themselves, sets out with declaring that all men are built-in free and equal – and that every subject field is entitled to liberty, and to accept it guarded past the laws, as well equally life and property – and in short is totally repugnant to the idea of beingness born slaves. This being the case, I recall the idea of slavery is inconsistent with our ain carry and Constitution; and there can exist no such thing as perpetual servitude of a rational animal, unless his liberty is forfeited by some criminal comport or given up by personal consent or contract ... ^[53]

The Walker instance had been opened by the attorney to consider whether a previous master'southward promise to free Walker gave him a right to freedom after that principal had died. Walker's lawyers argued that the concept of slavery was contrary to the Bible and the new Massachusetts Constitution (1780). The jury decided that Walker was a free homo under the constitution and awarded him 50 pounds in damages.

Both decisions were appealed. Jennison'southward appeal of Walker'southward freedom was rejected in September 1781 by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, either because he failed to appear^[54] or considering his lawyers did not submit the required court papers.^{[52] [55]} The Caldwells won the other entreatment; a jury concurred that Walker was a free man, and therefore the defendants were entitled to use him.

Commonwealth v. Jennison

In September 1781, a 3rd example was filed past the Attorney General against Jennison, Democracy five. Jennison, for criminal set on and battery of Walker. In his accuse to the jury, Main Justice William Cushing stated, "Without resorting to implication in constructing the constitution, slavery is ... as effectively abolished as it can be by the granting of rights and privileges wholly incompatible and repugnant to its existence." This has been taken as setting the groundwork for the cease of slavery in the land.^{[55] [56]} On April twenty, 1783, Jennison was institute guilty and fined 40 shillings.^[52]

Aftermath of the trials

While Chief Justice Cushing'south stance in effect should have concluded slavery in Massachusetts, the land never formally abolished slavery until the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment to the The states Constitution in 1865. Some possible reasons for this are that country legislators were either unable or unwilling to address slave-owners' concerns about losing their financial "investment", and non-slave owning white citizens' concerns that if slavery were abolished, the freed slaves could get a burden on the community. Some even feared that escaped slaves from other states would alluvion Massachusetts.^[57]

The Massachusetts Supreme Court decisions in Walker v. Jennison and Commonwealth v. Jennison established the ground for ending slavery in Massachusetts on ramble grounds, but no constabulary or subpoena to the state constitution was passed. Instead slavery gradually ended "voluntarily" in the state over the next decade. The decisions in the Elizabeth Freeman and Quock Walker trials had removed its legal support and slavery was said to end by erosion. Some masters manumitted their slaves formally and bundled to pay them wages for connected labor. Other slaves were "freed" but were restricted as indentured servants for extended periods.^[43] Past 1790, the federal census recorded no slaves in the state.^[58]

See besides [edit]

• Abolition in the United states of america
• Anthony Burns
• Elizabeth Freeman
• Tituba, an enslaved Carib woman from Barbados who played a central office in the Salem witch hunt
• New England Anti-Slavery Society
• Slavery in Massachusetts – An essay by Henry David Thoreau

References [edit]

1. ^ Newell, Margaret Ellen (2015). Brethren past Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery. Ithaca: Cornell University Printing. pp. eighteen–nineteen. ISBN978-0-8014-5648-0. OCLC 916715144.
2. ^ Warren, Wendy (2016). New England Bound: Slavery and Colonization in Early America. New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, a segmentation of W.W. Norton & Visitor.
3. ^ https://www.mass.gov/guides/massachusetts-constitution-and-the-abolition-of-slavery
4. ^ Unfreedom: Slavery and Dependence in Eighteenth-Century Boston. Early American Places Serial. New York: NYU Press. 2016. p. 143. ISBN9781479801848.
5. ^ Adams' Minutes of the Argument: Essex Superior Court, Salem, November 1766
6. ^ Legal Papers of John Adams, volume 2
7. ^ Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England By Catherine Adams, Elizabeth H. Pleck
8. ^ The Proceedings of the Cambridge Historical Order, Volume 40, 1964-1966
9. ^ https://world wide web.mass.gov/guides/massachusetts-constitution-and-the-abolition-of-slavery
10. ^ Thrush, Coll (2016). Indigenous London: Native Travelers at the Heart of Empire. New Haven: Yale University Printing. ISBN978-0-300-22486-3. OCLC 959713218.
11. ^ Newell, Brethren by Nature, 18-xix.
12. ^ Thrush, Ethnic London, 42.
13. ^ Vaughan, Alden (2006). Transatlantic Encounters: American Indians in Britain, 1500-1776. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN0-521-86594-eight. OCLC 64595876.
14. ^ Warren, New England Bound, three-4.
15. ^ Newell, Margaret, "Indian Slavery in Colonial New England" in Allan Gallay (ed.) Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009. pp. 33-66.
16. ^ Newell, Brethren by Nature, 26.
17. ^ Newell, Brethren by Nature, 28-30.
18. ^ Warren, New England Bound, 31-32.
19. ^ Cave, Alfred (1996). The Pequot State of war. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. pp. 158–159.
20. ^ Newell, Brethren past Nature, 35
21. ^ Newell, Brethren by Nature, 54-59
22. ^ Warren, New England Spring, 93-95.
23. ^ Newell, Brethren by Nature, 133.
24. ^ Fisher, Linford D. (2017). "'Why Shall Wee Have Peace to Bee Made Slaves': Indian Surrenderers During and After King Philip's War". Ethnohistory. 64 (1): 93. doi:ten.1215/00141801-3688391. PMC5654607. PMID 29081535.
25. ^ Lepore, Jill (1999). The Proper noun of War: King Philip'southward State of war and the Origins of American Identity. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 150–151. OCLC 41434140.
26. ^ Lepore, The Proper noun of War, 154-156.
27. ^ Newell, Brethren past Nature, 212-226.
28. ^ Ruth Wallis Herndon, "Women as Symbols of Disorder in Early Rhode Island," in Women and the Colonial Gaze, ed. Tamara 50. Hunt and Micheline R. Lessard (New York: New York University Press, 2002), 82-83.
29. ^ Newell, Brethren by Nature, 227-228.
30. ^ Warren, New England Bound, 7.
31. ^ O'Malley, Gregory East. (2009). "Across the Middle Passage: Slave Migration from the Caribbean to Due north America, 1619-1807". The William and Mary Quarterly. 66 (1): 125–172. JSTOR 40212043.
32. ^ Warren, New England Bound, 74.
33. ^ Warren, New England Bound, 45.
34. ^ O'Malley, Beyond the Middle Passage, 162.
35. ^ Warren, New England Jump, 265 note 22.
36. ^ O'Malley, Beyond the Middle Passage, 166.
37. ^ ^{a b c d} William M. Wiecek (1977). "the Statutory Law of Slavery and Race in the Xiii Mainland Colonies of British America". The William and Mary Quarterly. 34 (2): 261. doi:10.2307/1925316. JSTOR 1925316.
38. ^ Farrand Max (2002). "The Laws and Liberties of Massachusetts". Harvard University Printing.
39. ^ Nagl, Dominik (2013). 'The Governmentality of Slavery in Colonial Boston, 1690–1760' in American Studies, 58.i, pp. 5–26. [i] Archived 2014-04-09 at the Wayback Machine
40. ^ ^{a b} Higginbotham, A. Leon (1975). In the Thing of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Menses. Greenwood Press. ISBN978-0-19-502745-7.
41. ^ ^{a b} "First Slaves Arrive in Massachusetts".
42. ^ Harper, Douglass. "Slavery in Massachusetts". Slavery in the Northward. Retrieved 2007-06-10 .
43. ^ ^{a b} Piper, Emilie; Levinson, David (2010). I Minute a Gratis Woman: Elizabeth Freeman and the Struggle for Freedom. Salisbury, CT: Upper Housatonic Valley National Heritage Area. ISBN978-0-9845492-0-vii.
44. ^ Moore, George H. (1866). Notes on the history of slavery in Massachusetts. NY NY: D. Appleton & Co. p. 51. ISBN9780608410180 . Retrieved July 26, 2010.
45. ^ p. 34
46. ^ Adams' Minutes of the Argument: Essex Superior Courtroom, Salem, November 1766
47. ^ Jenny Slew: The first enslaved person to win her freedom via jury trial Meserette Kentake January 29, 2016
48. ^ Thursday Open Thread: Little Known Slave Court Cases NOVEMBER 9, 2017 BY MIRANDA
49. ^ Legal Papers of John Adams, book 2
50. ^ Love of Freedom: Black Women in Colonial and Revolutionary New England By Catherine Adams, Elizabeth H. Pleck
51. ^ The Proceedings of the Cambridge Historical Order, Volume forty, 1964–1966
52. ^ ^{a b c} Teddi Di Canio. "The Quock Walker Trials: 1781–83 – Suggestions for Farther Reading". Law Library (constabulary.jrank.org). Retrieved October four, 2009.
53. ^ Harper, Douglass. Emancipation in Massachusetts Archived 2004-01-28 at the Wayback Machine Slavery in the North. Retrieved 2010-05-22
54. ^ "Quock Walker". Massachusetts Historical Society (masshist.org). Retrieved October four, 2009.
55. ^ ^{a b} "Massachusetts Constitution, Judicial Review, and Slavery – The Quock Walker Example". mass.gov . Retrieved November ten, 2010.
56. ^ Arthur Zilversmit, The Commencement Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the N (Chicago: Academy of Chicago Press, 1967), 114
57. ^ Rose, Ben Z. (2009). Female parent of Freedom: Mum Bett and the Roots of Abolition. Waverly, Massachusetts: Treeline Press. ISBN978-0-9789123-1-4.
58. ^ Moore, George H. (1866). Notes on the history of slavery in Massachusetts. New York: D. Appleton & Co. p. 247. ISBN9780608410180 . Retrieved July 26, 2010.

coxcaunces.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Massachusetts

Share this post